Syriac Orthodox Church Of Antioch

"Tradition"
Know your Faith
Essays On Syriac Theology & Spirituality No. (1)

TRADITION
Tradition is, basically, the spiritual teaching we have inherited from the holy apostles and church fathers. Tradition is divine, apostolic or patriarchal.

Divine tradition is that teaching given over by Jesus Christ directly and by word of mouth to the Holy apostles. It was not recorded in a book until later through the inspiration and guidance of the Holy Spirit (1). It includes the New Testament and the truths of faith.

Apostolic tradition, on the other hand, includes the teachings of the apostles, their laws and the messages they handed down to their disciples and their immediate successors orally. What has been handed down is based on the divine tradition from which apostolic tradition derives its power. These teachings and this legacy, although not written in the Holy Scripture, yet they conform to its teachings. They never contradict with them and are considered to be the faithful testimony to the authenticity and true interpretation of the Divine proclamation, better yet, an aid to its understanding.

Apostolic tradition includes constitutions of faith which are derived from God and established by the apostles; it also includes the seven church Sacraments, enacted laws and liturgies they set up for the church such as the Holy Mass.

Patriarchal tradition, however, is what the Holy church has received ever since the dawn of its history from its holy Fathers. It includes noble teachings based on the teachings of the holy apostles with respect to the interpretation of doctrines; exegesis of the Holy Scripture, organization of religious rites and enactment of laws especially decisions taken by the holy synods and works of some church fathers, such as patriarch Kiryakos (+817) and laws enacted by them….

HOW ANCIENT TRADITION IS
Tradition is more ancient than the recording of the Holy Scriptures. Several generations prior to the recording of the Holy Scriptures and according to the rules of the Old Testament, successors used to receive from their predecessors the belief in one God and they used to abide by what was known as the law of the conscience. Moreover, worship of God and offering animal sacrifices were handed down from one person to another and the eldest son in the family was considered as its religious leader and the chief who is in charge of its civil affairs at the same time. The believers used to pass on stories of antiquity and historical events verbally, such as the story of creation, the creation of man, man's fall, the chronicle of redemption, which included the history of early fathers; the call of Abraham and his temptation and the Covenant promises of God to Abraham and His offspring by passing the law of circumcision as a mark of this Covenant; as well as other events that took place through the ages and were handed down generation after generation, until the coming of prophet Moses who was divinely inspired to record these events. Moses was also given over the Ten Commandments as written laws. He recorded also all necessary laws, which he received from God.

Tradition kept being observed among people of the Old Testament, in spite of having the laws recorded. This is clear as the Holy Scripture instructs people thus, "And thou shalt show thy son in that day, saying, This is done because of that which the Lord did unto me when I came forth out of Egypt (EX 13:8). And "Ask thy father and he will show thee; the elders, and they will tell thee." (Deut 32:7). Undoubtedly verbal teaching was extremely necessary, because the majority of people were illiterate.

In Christianity as well, tradition preceded the recording of the New Testament as Lord Jesus never recorded his Gospel and did not hand it over in a written form. He preached the Gospel of Salvation calling people to repentance. It was by word of mouth that Jesus gave the Holy Gospel over to his holy apostles and they, in their turn, kept it by heart and such was what most of his disciples did.

When Lord Jesus sent his disciples away to the world to preach the Gospel saying, " Go ye into all the world, and preach the Gospel to every creature. "(Mark 16: 15). He did not command them to write this Good News, neither did he demand that it be kept unwritten. It was when some of the apostles were asked to record what they had preached that the Holy Gospel was written down through the guidance of the Holy Spirit who kept them free from fault or blemish according to the Lord's promise to them. " But the comforter, which is the Holy Ghost, whom the Father will send in my name, he shall teach you all things, to your remembrance, whatsoever I have said unto you," (John 14: 26). The explanation of this truth could be found in what had been penned by Luke the Evangelist in the Introduction to his Gospel saying, " For as much as many have taken in hand to them unto us, which from the beginning were eye- witnesses, and ministers of the word. It seemed good to me also, having had perfect understanding set forth in order a declaration of those things which are most surely believed among us, Even as they delivered of all things from the very first to write unto thee in order, most excellent Theophilus, that thou mightest know the certainty of those things, wherein thou hast been instructed". (Luke 1: 1-4).

GOSPEL AND TRADITION
The Holy Gospel which is the Gospel of Salvation is a testimony to what the disciples of Lord Jesus have seen and heard from Him. What was therefore, written down in the Gospel was exactly what had been first preached verbally by the disciples. Having had the Holy Gospel recorded, the Holy church attested its authenticity through the guidance of the Holy Spirit and rejected apocryphal Gospels depending on the testimonies of the holy apostles, the righteous disciples and their venerable successors.

It goes without saying that the Christian church is far more ancient than the recording of the New Testament and that it had been established for a period of time during which only the Old Testament was recorded. And the believers then used to have the Holy Gospel circulated among them by the word of mouth and used to memorize it and have it spread afterwards worldwide. The first to pen the Holy gospel was the apostle Mathew in Aramaic in the year A.D.39 and the last book of the New Testament is the book Of Revelation which was written by John in Greek between A.D.90-100.

It is true that tradition preceded the recorded Holy Scripture, and that the Holy Church attested the authenticity and validity of these books, yet these books have derived their authority directly from the Holy Ghost; this spirit who was articulated through the prophets and apostles, preserving thus the teachings and doctrines of the church, inspiring church fathers, reminding them of all that had been said by Jesus Christ to his disciples, guiding them to the truth because he is the spirit of Truth emanating from the Father .

Scholar Origen (185-253) stated,
" I have come to know the four Gospels through tradition and I believe that they are unique". And Augustus (354-430) stated, " I wouldn't have had belief in the Gospel had I not been convinced by the voice of the Universal Church."(2).

Whereas tradition is more ancient than the written Gospel, therefore whoever receives the teachings of the Holy Gospel shall no doubt, receive the divine and apostolic traditions spontaneously and can never receive the Gospel yet, reject tradition so long as the Gospel is considered as part of tradition and both the Gospel and tradition form one entity and neither one can be dispensed with because each one completes the other.

There are many texts in the Holy Gospel indicating that the holy apostles did not record in the Gospel every saying of Lord Jesus and every deed done by Him. A conspicuous evidence of authenticity of this is what the apostle John said at the conclusion of his Gospel. "This is the disciple which testifieth of these things, and wrote these things; and we know that his testimony is true."(John 20:30). He also said: "And many other signs truly did Jesus in the presence of his disciples, which are not written in this book, But these are written, that ye might believe that Jesus is the Christ the Son of God; and that believing ye might have life through his name". (John 20: 30).

Many other verses uttered by Jesus and many other deeds done by Him but never mentioned in the recorded Gospel have become part of the divine tradition, such as what the Lord had taught his disciples through His Revelations for forty days after His Resurrection and until His ascension to Heaven as demonstrated by the Book Of Acts, "To whom also he showed Himself alive after his passion by many infallible proofs, being seen of them forty days, and speaking of the things pertaining to the Kingdom of God"( Acts 1:31). But the Book of Acts had no mention of anything about these matters, and had none of these teachings recorded in it. We are quite certain, however, that these teachings were orally conveyed to the believers who memorized, circulated and passed them on generation after generation.

APOSTOLIC TRADITION
Some apostles and disciples penned the Holy Gospel and some others wrote epistles which were joined to the New Testament. Those books, however, did not include all what they had preached to the world and all that had been said or done by Lord Jesus throughout his divine economy in the flesh. Some other apostles and disciples never recorded anything but they only preached verbally. Some of them wrote books but we never had these books included in the New Testament, Yet, we did have some of their teachings conveyed to us through tradition. We have received from early church fathers the laws attributed to the apostles and the rules they established for the structure of the church. We did also receive the valuable doctrines they had verbally handed over to the church but never had them recorded in the New Testament. Nevertheless, these teachings have been practiced by the church ever since the dawn of its existence, such as the observance of Sunday instead of the Hebrew Sabbath, the baptism of children and other verbal teachings. The apostle John said in one of his epistles, "Having many things to write unto you, I would not write with paper and ink: but I trust to come unto you and speak face to face, that our joy may be full" (John 2:12 &John 3 :13, 14).

This teaching which has been handed down by word of mouth by the apostle to the church, is the verbal apostolic tradition which could be an explanation of truths of Faith, an elucidation of the good doctrines, an interpretation of the teachings of the Lord or could be an arrangement of one of the worship rituals and the like.

Having been inspired by the Holy Spirit to complete whatever might be needed for the organization of the Holy Church in accordance with the requirements of time, such as the establishment of the office of deacons in the church, the election and appointment of the seven deacons to care for the church. (Acts 6: 1 –8), and the convocation of Synods, such as the Synod of Jerusalem A.D.51, and taking decisions they considered to be inspired by the Holy Spirit, apostles and disciples wrote, "For it seemed good to the Holy Ghost and to us" (Acts15: 28). Moreover, the working of the Holy Spirit is apparent, especially at the election of bishops and sending them away to minister, as quoted in the Acts of the Apostle, "As they ministered to the Lord, and fasted, the Holy Ghost said, " Separate me Barnabas and Saul for the work whereunto I have called them. And when they had fasted and prayed, and laid their hands on them, they sent them away". (Acts 13: 2).

The Holy Spirit's role in the organization of the church was not surprising to the apostles for the Lord had formerly told them about it saying, " I have yet many things to say unto you, but ye cannot bear them now. Howbeit when he, the Spirit of truth is come He will guide you into all truth". (John 16-12). So this guidance to all truth encompassed not solely what had been written down in the Holy Scripture but the teaching and arrangement as well, which the disciples had become capable of understanding and bearing after the descent of the Holy Spirit upon them. All this conforms with the teaching of the scripture yet has never been recorded in it. It was passed on verbally by the fathers; and apostle Paul commands his disciple Timothy in this regard saying, " And the things that you hath heard of me among many witnesses, the same commit thou the faithful men, who shall be able to teach others also"(Tit 2:2). And he says to the Thessalonians : "Therefore, brethren stand fast, and hold the traditions which ye have been taught, whether by word, or our epistle."(2 Thes2: 15). And in relation to apostle Paul's explanation of the sacrament of the Holy Eucharist to the Corinthians, he elucidates the fact that the apostolic tradition is based on the divine tradition by saying, "For I have received of the Lord that which also I delivered unto you, that the Lord Jesus the same night in which he was betrayed took bread: and when he had given thanks, he brake it, and said, Take, eat: this is my body, which is broken for you;" (1Cor.: 23-30). And the apostle Paul concludes by saying: " And the rest well I set in order when I came."1 Corn (11: 34).

PATRIARCHAL TRADITION
With such words the apostle Paul defers explanation of some organizational or liturgical matters until going to meet them. These matters which he conveyed face to face, and which the church circulated and passed through tradition generation after generation, have been kept intact by the Holy Spirit up to the present date and have been practiced by the Universal church in different languages and in the contexts of different local civilizations.

Patriarchal tradition is also based on apostolic tradition in relation to liturgical regulations and canon laws. And both traditions are based on Divine tradition in terms of admitting authenticity of the Holy Scripture and Truths of faith.

Ever since the dawn of Christianity tradition has always occupied a sublime position in Christian apostolic Churches. In the chronicle of Eusebius of Caesarea (3), the following was written about the Martyr Saint Ignatius the Illuminator (+ 107): disciple of the apostle John, bishop of Antioch: " History reports that he was sent from Syria to Rome, and became a prey to the beasts because of his testimony to Christ. And throughout his trip in the middle of Asia, he was kept under strict military guard. He used to empower churches in different cities wherever he stayed through homilies and advice encouraging believers to stick to the traditions of the apostles. Moreover he found it necessary that these traditions be supported by writing proofs and by giving these traditions a fixed form for guaranteeing their intactness."

*Patriarchal Magazine (Jan. Feb. Mar. 1990) 91-93
1-Patriarch Ephrem Barsom1, Alhak Alkanoni, chps.22, 23.Art.112-120.
2-Habeeb Jerjis, The Orthodox Rock,Egypt, (1961),p.125
3--Eusebius of Caesarea, History of the church, trans. By priest Mark David, Cairo ed. 3vol., ch. 26, p.151,(1960)

"The Concept of Jurisdiction and Authority in the Syrian Orthodox Church on Antioch"
Article by His Grace Mor Gregorios Johanna Ibrahim
Metropolitan of Aleppo and Environs The Rev. Fr. Monk Melki assisted with this translation.

Nobody in the Syrian Orthodox Church of Antioch (S.O.C.A.) has treated, in a separate study, the subject of jurisdiction and authority and how it is practiced today. An order may be issued concerning these two subjects from an authority in the church which is believed to be based on church canon law and its constitution, while the truth is something different. Going back to the sources of church canon laws gives a clear idea about the meaning of jurisdiction and how to practice authority in the church. Our church relies for its canon law on the following:

1 -- The rules of the Old and New Testaments.

2 -- The pseudo-apocryphal canons of the Apostles including the canons of some local and regional synods.

3 -- The decisions of the three Ecumenical Councils which were held in Nicea (325 AD), Constantinople (381 AD) and Ephesus (431 AD). 4 -- The canons quoted from the letters of some famous church fathers who lived in the early centuries of Christianity and other canons prescribed by some church fathers as responses to questions they were asked. 5 -- Also, the canons of the universal synods which are recognized by the S.O.C.A. after the event of the schism in the year 518 AD, which include decrees and canons enacted by patriarchs on different subjects.

Fortunately a large number of these canons are preserved for us in the Syriac language in manuscripts scattered here and there. The Catholicos of the East, Mar Gregorius Ibn Al-Ibri (Bar Hebraeus, 1286) summarized them in his book known as Nomocanon which is the book the church still depends on and considers one of her most important canonical sources. After the time of Bar Hebraeus there were many efforts and numerous legal opinions, but the church had no occasion to enact a constitution, in which to define jurisdiction and how to practice authority, that was because of the difficult circumstances which the church passed through after the thirteenth century.

The time of Hulagu (1217 - 1265) was the beginning of the destruction in the Syrian Orthodox archdioceses. Firstly, jurisdiction was significantly changed in its geographical form. For example, many important archdioceses were removed from the church map, other small archdioceses were newly formed, and authority was on many occasions connected to the power of personality of church authorities and how close they were to political power.

I don't want to enter into the details of what happened in the distant past (between the 6th and 18th centuries) so as to show how authority was practiced by the Patriarch to the extent of his jurisdiction and the scope of its effectiveness and his authority within the borders and jurisdiction of the Catholicos, because this subject needs separate research. But after World War I there were many developments forced on the church by political and security circumstances. These were the reasons for the changes of jurisdiction and geographical boundaries many times. The jurisdiction of the Patriarch, which had been limited to a number of Middle Eastern countries and India, was expanded because of the emigration of a large number of church members to the whole world, specifically to every Syrian Orthodox Church which was established on any of the five continents.

The book Nomocanon, in which Bar Hebraeus treated the church, her sacraments and her feasts in the first 8 chapters, is not sufficient to clarify the meaning of jurisdiction and to describe how to practice authority in the church. Due to that a number of synods were held in this century, most importantly: the Synod of Alway in Kerala, India in August 1911 which issued 39 articles, and the Synod of St. Matthew Monastery (Iraq, 1930) which put in place regulations and some articles. But, more important than these two was the Synod of Homs which was held in February 1933 and set out a complete constitution for the church clarifying the jurisdiction of the Patriarch and the metropolitans and explaining how authority should be practiced by the Holy Synod, the Patriarch, the metropolitans and the bishops and what the place of the authority of laity is through the general board of trustees (which does not exist today) and the special board of trustees for each archdiocese. (It has special bi-laws which the synod has decreed and the Patriarch has authenticated.)

There is another point that we will not elaborate on here which is the role of laity in our church (which needs separate research) and its authority which fluctuates from time to time and from Patriarch to Patriarch and from metropolitan to metropolitan.

The articles of the Synod of Homs in the year 1933 became the basis for what is known today as the Church Constitution. In spite of this brief time many amendments have been made to this constitution by several synods which were held after that date. The last one was the Synod of Damascus in 1991 presided over by Patriarch Mor Ignatius Zakka I Iwas. We will rely on this updated constitution in our paper on the meaning of jurisdiction and how to practice authority in the Syrian Orthodox Church of Antioch these days.

(A) (1) The Synod and Its Jurisdiction The Holy Synod is composed of all of the metropolitans and bishops of the archdioceses which come under the Apostolic See of Antioch in the countries of the Middle East, India and the diaspora in addition to the metropolitans who are patriarchal vicars, and the patriarchal assistant in Damascus. The head of the Synod is the Patriarch. From this point the extent of the jurisdiction of the Synod will become clear. Its authority spreads to the extent of the authority of the Patriarch, the metropolitans and the bishops. These decisions are taken whenever two-thirds of the metropolitans meet and the decisions are taken unanimously.

(2) The Jurisdiction of the Patriarch The first article from the general rules in the church constitution says that: The Syrian Orthodox Church of Antioch is One, Universal, Holy and Apostolic Church. The old patriarchal headquarters was in Antioch where its See was founded by St. Peter, Head of the Apostles in the year 37 AD and its present headquarters (after 1959) is Damascus, the capital of Syria. The second article says: His Holiness the Patriarch is the supreme head over the church and its Holy Synod.

In article 7 we read about the title of the Patriarch: His Holiness Mor Ignatius ... Patriarch of Antioch and all the East, Supreme Head of the Universal Syrian Orthodox Church.

It is clear from these articles that the jurisdiction of the Patriarch is like the jurisdiction of the Holy Synod: he is the supreme head over the church wherever her sons and daughters are spread, he has the right to be preeminent in the archdioceses that have legal metropolitans and his jurisdiction includes all of the churches whether they are independent or are patriarchal vicariates.

Article 5 of the constitution says: The churches and the institutions and the Evangelistic Associations that are not included in the Syrian archdioceses mentioned in article 4, are administered directly by His Holiness the Patriarch. Since the Patriarch is the symbol of unity of the church and the universal father of all Syrians in the world, so it is necessary he be obeyed by the clergy at all levels and ranks, the deacons, the institutions, the active committees and the people altogether.

(3) The Jurisdiction of the Catholicos The Catholicos (Maphryono) comes second to the Patriarch in rank in the S.O.C.A. and the Catholicos is elected from only those metropolitans who are under the See of the Catholicate, and he should be obeyed by the priests and deacons and the people in the Syrian Orthodox archdioceses in India. And just as the name of the Patriarch is mentioned in all the archdioceses in the world so the name of the Catholicos should be mentioned in all the archdioceses in India after the name of the Patriarch and before the name of the metropolitan of the archdiocese. According to article 20 of the constitution, the jurisdiction of the Catholicos of the East includes all the Syrian Orthodox archdioceses in India. The Syrian Indian diaspora in the Arabian Gulf area comes directly under His Holiness the Patriarch. And the Malankara Archdiocese of the Syrian Orthodox Church in North America also comes directly under the Patriarch.

The subject of the Catholicate in India has undergone developments recently. Several synods have been held in the patriarchal residence and in India to resolve the causes of the differences and to return to the unity which had tied together the churches throughout India and the Antiochian See. This is another sensitive subject in need of separate research. Great efforts have been made these days for the sake of coming to an agreement between the two factions, by preparing a draft agreement in which we hope will be defined the jurisdiction of the Catholicate and its authority in light of recent developments, throughout this we have had new information on these two topics.

(4) The Jurisdiction of the Metropolitan The Holy Synod consists of all of the active metropolitans. An active metropolitan is one who has an independent archdiocese which has its own entity and geographical boundaries, or is a vicar or a patriarchal assistant. The jurisdiction of each metropolitan is defined by the church constitution. The geographical boundaries of the archdiocese could include a whole city or part of it, or a number of cities in a state, or many states in one country, or many countries in one continent.

The scope of the geographical area does not necessarily determine the importance of the archdiocese. The boundaries of an archdiocese could be a whole continent as in the situation of Australia but its importance is less than other archdioceses which consist of one city in the Orient. Importance is usually given to the presence of the number of Syrian people, its active institutions and committees and different activities in the archdiocese.

According to the constitution (1991) we have 20 independent archdioceses or patriarchal vicariates. After 1991 the Holy Synod decided to form four archdioceses as patriarchal vicariates. These are all the archdioceses:

1 -- Damascus, the Patriarchate, its headquarters in Damascus includes the governorate of Damascus and its environs.

2 -- Homs and Hama and its environs, its headquarters is in Homs, includes the governorate of Homs, Hama and Tartus.

3 -- Aleppo, its headquarters is in Aleppo, includes the governorates of Aleppo, Idlib, Raqqa, and Latakia.

4 -- Jezirah and Euphrates, its headquarters is in Hassake, includes the governorates of Hassake and Deir Ez-Zor.

5 -- Beirut and Zahle, its headquarters is in Beirut, includes the governorates of Beirut and Bekaa.

6 -- Mount Lebanon, its headquarters is in Bouchrieh, includes the governorates of Mount Lebanon and Tripoli.

7 -- Baghdad and Basra, its headquarters is in Baghdad, includes the governorates of Baghdad and Basra.

8 -- Mosul and its environs, its headquarters is in Mosul, includes the cities of Mosul, Sinjar and Qaraqosh and the northern governorates of Irbil, Tamim (that is Karkuk) and Suleimaneye.

9 -- St. Matthew Monastery, its headquarters is in St. Matthew Monastery, includes Bartilla, Bashika, Bahsahne, Akra and Mergi.

10 -- Mardin and its environs, its headquarters is in Mardin, includes the villages of Mardin and Qelleth and the governorates of Diyarbakir (Amid), Malateya, Adiaman and Al-Aziz.

11 -- Turabdin, its headquarters is in Midyat, includes the villages of Turabdin, Beit Zebde, Nusaybis and its villages.

12 -- Istanbul, it is a Patriarchal Vicariate with its headquarters in Istanbul, includes the governorates of Istanbul and Ankara. 13 -- Jerusalem and its environs, it is a Patriarchal Vicariate with its headquarters in Jerusalem, includes Palestine and Jordan.

14 -- The eastern states of the United States, it is a Patriarchal Vicariate with its headquarters in Lodi, New Jersey, includes the eastern states of the United States.

15 -- The western states of the United States, it is a Patriarchal Vicariate with its headquarters in Los Angeles, includes the western states of the United States.

16 -- Canada, it is a Patriarchal Vicariate with its headquarters in Montreal.

17 -- Brazil, it is a Patriarchal Vicariate with its headquarters in Sao Paulo, includes Brazil.

18 -- Argentina, it is a Patriarchal Vicariate with its headquarters in La Palata, Buenos Aires, includes Argentina.

19 -- Sweden and the Scandinavian countries has its headquarters in S"dertälje, Sweden.

20 -- The Patriarchal Vicariate in Sweden has its headquarters in S"dertälje, Sweden.

21 -- Middle Europe and the Benelux countries, its headquarters is in the St. Ephrem Monastery in Losser, Holland, includes Middle Europe and the Benelux countries.

22 -- The Knanaya, its headquarters is in Chingavanom, Kerala, includes all the churches of the Knanaya in India.

23 -- The Churches of the See (Simhasana churches) and its headquarters is in the monastery of St. Ignatius in Omalloor.

24 -- As for the Catholicate of the East, the constitution has delimited its jurisdiction and authority with the following words: The Catholicate of the East, its headquarters being in Muvattupuzha, includes all the Syrian Orthodox Archdioceses in India except the archdiocese of the Knanaya, the churches of the Patriarchal See and the Evangelistic Associations of the East in India and the Honavar Mission in North Kanara, India.

It is not possible to add a new geographical area to or remove another from the archdioceses except by a decree from the Holy Synod and by authorization of the Patriarch. For example, our churches in Australia were included under article 5 of the constitution which orders that its administration goes back directly to His Holiness the Patriarch, despite the presence of a metropolitan in it who oversees its affairs as a patriarchal delegate. When it was necessary to make the archdiocese a patriarchal vicariate the Synod studied the request of the clergy, the organizations and the people in these churches. Then the Patriarch issued a decree joining it as a patriarchal vicariate to the list of archdioceses of the Patriarchal See.

(B) (1) The Power of the Patriarch and How it is Practiced Today in the Church Who defines the authority of the Patriarch and who can call it into account? And, from where does he have his wide authority in directing the church in its different affairs?

Answer: The constitution of the church declares clearly that the Holy Synod has the right to limit or widen the full authority of the Patriarch in light of the canon law of the church and with a majority of the votes, if two-thirds of the active members are attending a legal session of the Synod.

This is what happened in the amended constitution of the year of 1991, which widened the authority of the Patriarch in the church. As for the subject of calling the Patriarch to account the article 7.g. (7.e. in English) gives to the Holy Synod the full power to investigate the Patriarch if it is needed, but this matter itself cannot take place unless two-thirds of the members of the Synod present a justified written request to two of the senior metropolitans who are members of the Synod. The Patriarch cannot be judged except by the agreement of two-thirds of the members of the Synod. Regarding this matter the constitution says in article 108. d. (108. h. in English) as follows: The Holy Synod issues its judgement on the Patriarch according to the adhered to rules and canons of the church by more than two-thirds of the members who are present. As for the other third, if they cannot attend they can express their opinion in writing and if he was condemned and discharged from his office the Apostolic See shall be considered vacant. In this case the articles pertaining to the election of a locum tenens will be implemented then and the election of a new Patriarch according to this constitution.

It is useful to go back to the Book of Ordination in the church. The study of the prayers which are recited over the Patriarch elect shows the form of the service which the new Patriarch must necessarily carry out. The subject of the patriarchal staff has another meaning. No metropolitan or bishop may hold the staff in the presence of the Patriarch to assure respect of the Patriarchate and its honor. Three privileges of the Patriarch are mentioned in the Book of Ordination :

1 -- He is to be elected by ballot which means by the agreement of all the chief clergy (metropolitans and bishops) and in that way he becomes a universal father for the whole church and the Father of the Fathers;

2 -- It is on the Patriarch alone that the prayer of invocation of the Holy Spirit (belonging to St. Clemis) is recited and that is by the chief clergy, that is the metropolitans who are ordaining him;

3 -- The staff which the head chief clergy are holding onto - each one by the level of the order by which he became a metropolitan or a bishop - one after another takes the right hand of the patriarch elect and raises it up over all of their hands by this it is made clear it is by the free will and agreement of the whole church that he is given full authority over all the orders of the Holy Church of God.

For this reason he himself writes and reads what he has written according to the canon. This means his announcement embracing the constitution of the creed as is fitting to him, that he will behave well in justice and uprightness, walk or act according to the apostolic canons, accept the famous fathers and the three Ecumenical Councils, refute the heretics and dedicate himself to work and sacrifice for the safety and continuance of the Holy Church of God. He will also reconcile between two disputing adversaries in whatever promises are needed. He is never obliged to say: That he obeys an order of any of those who are ordaining him as they are obliged to submit to his order.

The act of kneeling down by the head of the synod and all of the metropolitans who are with him on the ground before the one to be elected and the head of the synod says to him: The Holy Spirit is calling you to become Patriarch, the father of the heads of the city of Antioch and to the whole jurisdiction of this Apostolic See, I mean the father for all of us. In return for that the one elected for the patriarchal see kneels before the synod and says: I have agreed and accepted.

Surely there is no ordination liturgy for the Patriarch but there is an enthronement rite. The one elected Patriarch does not take a new rank in the level of the episcopate. He becomes the first among the metropolitans and bishops, and with calling him Patriarch his name remains the Bishop of Antioch. The boundaries of his jurisdiction and his direct authority in his archdiocese is the patriarchal residence which has been determined by the Holy Synod.

The church constitution defines the authority of the Patriarch as follows: In pastoral affairs: The Patriarch carries out apostolic visits to the archdioceses and churches within the jurisdiction of the See of Antioch at least one time every five years, checking up on their affairs and giving comments on what he sees is necessary. He holds to account the metropolitans and bishops of the archdiocese, the priests, the community committee and all the organizations. He has full authority to dispatch clergy in church and cultural missions like attending conferences of an ecumenical, cultural or church nature. If there are vacant archdioceses the Patriarch appoints reliable clergy for administration of pastoral affairs until a metropolitan is legally elected for it. And in return for that, all archdioceses and churches present a yearly tithe which is known as "zedqe" that he is entitled to from the financial accounts of the archdioceses. Or, it is gathered in the name of the patriarchate in a way which the archdioceses deems appropriate. This practice still exists in some of the archdioceses.

On the subject of faith: The constitution names the Patriarch as the protector of the faith of the church, her holy dogmas, doctrines and her apostolic and patristic traditions. Accordingly, it is included in his authority to investigate, correct and scrutinize all books and articles considering the matter of faith in them and giving his comments. He has the right to permit publication or to forbid printing and distribution. He also has the right to delete or enter new church premises. Here we notice that although it is one of the Synods powers to watch out for religious heresies, contradictions of church traditions and its organizations and condemn those who commit them whether they are clergy or laity with all the sanctions of the church, the Patriarch as the head of this synod carries out this decision. Therefore His Holiness the Patriarch is called: defender of the faith.

In the ordination of priests: the Patriarch has the right to put the monastic cowl on those who have the qualifications from both genders, and to ordain males as priests and to appoint them as it is necessary in appropriate roles. He also responds to the invitations of metropolitans and bishops or archdioceses to ordain others to the priesthood or deaconate. As for the archpriests he elevates them, or the metropolitans elevate them, by his order. The ordination of the legally elected catholicos or metropolitans remains one of his authorities and rightful powers. By his order, or in the case of the vacancy of the See, one of the metropolitans can do this if he has been the dean of the Synod or the oldest of the metropolitans by age.

Right after the ordination, the Patriarch provides them with the Sostateequn and that is the document which defines the jurisdiction and authority of the new metropolitan in light of his service, whether it is a legal archdiocese or patriarchal vicariate. And with this document the metropolitan is endowed with patristic instructions and apostolic advice as he calls the clergy and laity to take care of their new metropolitan. It is within the authority of the Patriarch to approve the election of metropolitans who are under the See of the Catholicate directly after election. Then he grants the new metropolitans with the document Sostateequn after their ordination by the Catholicos and his metropolitans.

On the rest of the Sacraments: The Patriarch, if present, takes the lead in the liturgy except in the sacrament of Holy Oil (Morun). The Patriarch alone has the right to specify the time of the consecration of the Holy Oil (Morun). Its consecration is done under his leadership and in his presence, with the assistance of two of his metropolitans, at least, or one metropolitan in case of dire necessity.

The affairs of organization and administration: The Patriarch has the right to establish relationships between his church and other churches, to negotiate with them on ecumenical affairs, to sign common statements or bilateral agreements and to visit the worldly authorities wherever he is to discuss church affairs in general. He is the one who signs for all documents, contracts of all kinds, records and letters related to the affairs of the See. He announces the decrees of the synods, the election of the Catholicos and metropolitans and he transfers metropolitans from one archdiocese to another.

After taking a decision in the synod his authority gives him the right to receive resignations from the catholicos or metropolitans, and to implement their dismissal. He also orders the correction of geographical borders of the archdioceses. He announces the foundation and establishment of archdioceses or their abolishment, sells part or all of the properties and the endowments of the patriarchate. He has the authority to call for a holding of the Holy Synod and to set the time and the place.

Concerning the church's court: The Patriarch is the authority to refuse or approve any of the judgements issued by any preliminary court in the countries of the Middle East and the diaspora, and to appoint the head of the court of appeals in the patriarchate or in any other country. He has the right to appoint the head of a preliminary court in the patriarchal vicariates wherever they are found. He also has the right in case of the removal of one of the heads from his position in any spiritual court in the archdioceses to deputize another person for a short time in that case. The Patriarch alone is head of the high court in the church and is the highest level in the churches' courts and his decisions are legally valid and are not able to be appealed. This is for the subject of personal affairs. But on the subject of church punishments in the lower levels, the Patriarch does not interfere in the rights of the metropolitan or archdioceses but he should be informed of the matter. The subject of church excommunications remains entrusted to the Patriarch and after examination of all of the aspects of the case he will issue a judgement of excommunication on the clergy or the laity and will announce it by known media.

We still have to point out that Syrian monasteries including monastics (men and women) and the theological seminaries which include the seminarians, their affairs, taking care of them, preparing them educationally during their stay in the seminaries or sending them for research studies abroad in the theological colleges in different parts of the world, and the printing and distribution of books, magazines and publications in the patriarchate: All are entrusted to the person of the Patriarch and are within his authority.

(2) The Authority of the Metropolitan and How it is Practiced in the Church Today The election of the metropolitan has changed in the Syrian Church between the past and now. While in the past the archdiocese chose three monks from among the monks. The Patriarch and his synod chose one of them to be the metropolitan for the archdiocese. But, now the Patriarch selects and suggests three candidates from among the monks and the archdiocese chooses one of them. According to the constitution of 1991 the Patriarch must necessarily confer with the members of the Holy Synod about the monks who are candidates and if he gets a majority of the votes he ordains him. This plurality of authority puts the archdiocese in a bind sometimes but most important is that the metropolitan of the Syrian Orthodox Church (except for the patriarchal assistant and the patriarchal vicariates whose names are suggested by the Patriarch and they are appointed by him) is elected by the clergy and believers in the archdiocese. If it is impractical for the believers to do so: Then the clergy of the archdiocese and the community committees and the organizations of the church and the active committees elect him. Then the metropolitan will stay at the head of his archdiocese as long as he remains in good health, does not desire resignation and is not more than 75 years of age when he is to retire. This last point is a new article in the revised constitution of 1991, for article 62 says: The metropolitan has the right to present his resignation to His Holiness the Patriarch or to retire at 70 years of age. He must necessarily retire at the age of 75.

His authority is manifold and various, for the metropolitan holds prime responsibility in the archdiocese, organizes its different affairs and is helped in that by two committees: First, by the laity known as the board of trustees (community committee), for in the committee the metropolitan has an assistant who deputizes for him in the administrative sessions in the committee during his absence according to the bi-laws of the community committees. This committee has a long history in the Syrian Orthodox Church of Antioch. It is clear from different stages that laity has a great role in the life of the church. If we look at the powers of the committee from the organizational, the social and the financial side we find they are many. All of these powers call for the raising of the level of the archdiocese, to support her unity and preserve her rights. The community committee has the right to preside over the different kinds of activities of the organizations of the archdiocese, to enact suitable bi-laws for them, to call them to account, to supervise them, to look into the affairs of its committees, to change them or they will be disbanded if they commit something wrong which is against what the committee has issued and to intervene and resolve differences between the leaders and members of the administration of these organizations.

The community committee takes care of the cultural and educational movements in the archdiocese and they have the right to oversee in the peoples' voting to choose a new metropolitan and priests for the archdiocese and all of the financial affairs are within its domain.

Although the committee has special, different smaller committees, and its meetings are considered legal if more than half of the members are present, the new article of the bi-laws of the committees approved that the decisions of these committees will be considered null and void unless the metropolitan of the archdiocese is present. This new article in many cases hinders the working affairs of the committee. So, it makes it necessary that the metropolitan always attend to help these lay organizations in determining the administrative affairs in the archdiocese.

As for the committee of clergy which includes all of the priests of the archdiocese headed by the metropolitan, it is to oversee the spiritual affairs of the metropolitanate. This committee has no bi-laws, and does not take any executive decisions. Its task is limited to studying the spiritual affairs in the archdiocese, developing the activities of spiritual services, treating some of the problems in light of the teachings of the gospel and the canons of the church and putting forward their findings to whomever it may concern.

This clarifies the authority of the metropolitan: Pastorally, the archdiocese is always looking after the members of the metropolitanate, blessing their homes, looking after their affairs, receiving them in the metropolitan's residence, meeting their needs as he is able. Regarding Sacraments, when he is present he heads spiritual services in the metropolitanate. He alone has the right to build and to renovate the churches and the altars in the metropolitanate. In article 59: No one has the right to build or to renew a church or altar in the church except by the order of the metropolitan of the archdiocese. He alone has the right to consecrate the churches, the altars and the vessels used by the celebrant in them. He also ordains the priests and the deacons. He administers the sacraments and the Holy Oil for the baptism and the anointing of the sick. And it is within his authority to shift a priest from one church to another within the area of his metropolitanate. He has the right to punish deviating clergy and laity through the church's discipline and informs His Holiness the Patriarch giving the reasons that necessitated the punishment.

It is also within his authority to take care of the affairs of the archdiocese administrationally, financially and educationally. He is the one who holds the official records to register in them events like baptisms, engagements, marriages, deaths, and wills and all of the contracts and bequests and to preserve all of these. He presides over and approves the yearly budgets of the archdiocese and he establishes the schools and he oversees the publications and the circulations in his metropolitanate. He establishes the organizations, committees, clubs and all of the community associations. Article 60.d. (60.i. in English) says: Any of these committees that is not approved by the metropolitan is null and void.

Another authority of the metropolitan is overseeing the affairs of the archdiocese, making sure they don't go against the constitution of the church, because he is responsible before the Patriarch and the Holy Synod concerning deviations from the church constitution in his metropolitanate. He has the authority in this matter to announce and implement the decisions of the Synod within the boundaries of his archdiocese and to prepare a detailed written report about his archdiocese for His Holiness to show to the Holy Synod in its usual and exceptional sessions which he personally attends.

The constitution defines the authority of the metropolitan on these subjects:

1 -- He does not negotiate with heads of churches, other religions or other religious organizations about spiritual or church affairs without the permission of His Holiness.

2 -- He may not lend, borrow, grantee or take a grantee on or rent the endowments of the archdiocese, the churches, the organizations or the charitable associations without a decision of the local board of trustees. 3 -- He does not bet, exchange or sell any of the archdiocese's endowments, churches, organizations or charitable organizations except with a decision from the local community committee and by the approval of His Holiness the Patriarch.

It remains to be pointed out that he alone in the archdiocese has the right to preside over the preliminary court sessions of first order and to choose whoever he prefers from the priests and the laity to be members in the spiritual court. He alone has the right to take suitable decisions according to the proceedings of the case and in light of the church canon law and execute them according to the personal statutes canon except for the decision regarding the dissolution of marriage or divorce, for that decision cannot be taken without the approval of the Patriarch.

In the situation where he is chosen to represent the Patriarch or the Holy Synod in an important church matter, whatever it is, when he returns to the archdiocese he must write a detailed report about the task he was delegated for.

Just as nobody can interfere in the administrative, organizational, spiritual and financial affairs, except as permitted by the constitution, so he has no right to interfere in the matters of another archdiocese nor to take part in practicing or carrying out any church services in it except by permission of the head of that archdiocese and by his satisfaction. If he ordains someone in it, it should be considered as invalid and the Patriarch and the Holy Synod will look into the matter.

(3) The Authority of the Holy Synod Before finishing, I would like to point out some rights which the constitution specifies for the Holy Synod. In all cases these rights supplement those of the Patriarch and the metropolitans and the whole church. The authority of the synod is to:

1 -- elect the Patriarch and enthrone him in the patriarchal residence at a suitable time and to receive the resignation of the Patriarch and the metropolitans and to order their dismissal.

2 -- to agree on or to reject the decisions of the Patriarch to candidate the monks for the rank of episcopate in the case of their election and appointment.

3 -- to investigate the Patriarch and the metropolitans and to judge them according to canon law.

4 -- to look into the religious heresies which are against the faith and traditions of the church and its by-laws and to issue judgements against whomever committed them, whether clergy or laity, with all of the punishments of the church.

5 -- to meet, presided over by the oldest metropolitan, if the Patriarch has not called the Synod for three successive sessions.

6 -- to shift Metropolitans from one archdiocese to another and to establish, to renew and to abolish archdioceses or to change its geographical borders or to sell a part or all of the endowments of the Patriarchate.

7 -- in case of a vacancy in the See, the Synod is to elect one of the metropolitans as an interim authority according to the principals and articles of the constitution.

This could be enough but I allow myself to add three notes on these two subjects: jurisdiction and authority.

1 -- The present situation cannot be compared to the distant past, for most of the sees and metropolitanates which were at one time included in the jurisdiction of the See of Antioch and were under the decisions of the Holy Synod are not present in this time. According to two ancient Syrian manuscripts it is clear that seven sees were under the See of the Antiochian Patriarchate and they were: (1) Aleppo, (2) Kanasreen, (3) Jebleh, (4) Sulokiah, (5) Hansarta, (6) Bloutoan, (7) Al Jabul. And there were two other sees in which the Patriarch had the authority to send their metropolitans wherever and they are: (1) Salameia, (2) Brakusun. Four other sees were independent and they are (1) Beirut, (2) Homs, (3) Latakia and (4) Khorus. The number of metropolitanates which were under the Holy See were twelve: (1) Tyre, (2) Tarsus, (3) Al Ruhra (Edessa/Urfa), (4) Aphamia, (5) Manbej, (6) Bosra, (7) Ain Zerba, (8) Sulokia/Isauria, (9) Damascus, (10) Amed, (11) Rasafe, (12) Dara. For each metropolitanate there were many archdioceses.

2 -- The title metropolitan, bishop, archbishop or episcopus all have been raised to the level of Episcopate. Each metropolitan is an archbishop and a bishop and an episcopus. The episcopus at this time is a widowed priest who has been raised to the level of the episcopacy. The article 91 of the constitution says as for the episcopus he is chosen from among the widowed priests and the garb of the episcopus is not to be different from that of the metropolitans and his rights are equal to their rights. But, he is always last in rank in the Holy Synod even if he was ordained previous to another.

3 -- Today the Patriarch practices a much wider authority because the revised constitution in previous periods has permitted th"is. The power of the personality of the Patriarch and the metropolitans plays a distinguishing role in widening their authorities. "

"A Short Overview of the Common History of the Syrian Church with Islam through the Centuries"
Patriarchal Journal
Vol. 33 - June 1995 - No. 146, pp. 322-344.
Maren Tyedmers Hange assisted with this translation.

Introduction As we approach this important issue, it is necessary to give a brief overview of the political and religious conditions shortly before the appearance of Islam in the areas where the Syrian Church began in the early age of Christianity and in the places where Islam originated and spread after more than 600 years of Christianity. We will touch on the general situation of Christianity, the split of the church and her doctrinal differences in order to gain a better insight into the foundations of the beliefs of these two religions. We will also mention some points in broad strokes where the Christian and Islamic beliefs agree.

Who are the Syrians? The members of the Antiochian Syrian Church represent the direct descendants of the original inhabitants of Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Asia Minor, as well as Upper- and Lower- Mesopotamia--that is Iraq today. Their language, Syriac-Aramaic, was the language of ancient Syria. It was also the language our Lord Jesus Christ spoke and the language predominantly spoken in these areas when Islam appeared. Besides this, Arabic was spoken by the Arabic tribes coming from the Gulf region. These tribes had immigrated a long time earlier and lived in villages in eastern Syria and in western and northern Iraq. Along side Arabic these tribes used Syriac as an inseparable part of the Anthocyan Syrian Church's liturgy. In addition to these two languages, Greek was spoken as the official language of the Byzantine colonial power and by the populations in the cities of Greek origin who were the inhabitants of the large cities. Persian was also spoken as the language of the Sassanid Empire.

Religious and Political Conditions Before the Appearance of Islam The Split of the Christian Church At the beginning of the 7th century the Antiochian Syrian Church fought with all its might for its existence, its Syriac-Aramaic heritage and its exalted Christian dogma inherited from the holy Apostles and the spiritual, righteous Fathers. The church was weakened by the forceful persecution from both empires, namely the Byzantine and the Persian, who for generations had threatened its existence because of its geographical position. Through the enormous number of martyrs, whom the church produced through the centuries, the members gained a certain long suffering patience that allowed them to bear the oppression, distresses and deprivations as good soldiers of Christ. Added to that was the appearance of extreme opinions in religion and the kindling of dogmatic confrontations as an occasion to study theology more deeply. Furthermore it drove its scientists to combine theology with the science of philosophy as a weapon to use against heretical statements and to defend the truth of religious dogma.

The Syrians were so famous for their love of science that they founded a school beside every church. Their monasteries became faculties for theology and other sciences. The church suffered under this division. It changed from a spiritual institution that strove for the salvation of souls into a battlefield where christological conflicts were carried out inconsiderately. This situation led to doubt in the hearts of the believers and to a weakening of the faith.

In addition to this, the Roman empire was divided into two camps after the death of the Emperor Constantine: namely the West-Roman, using Latin, and the East-Roman that used Greek and was called the Byzantine empire. Most of the Syrian areas were under the rule of the Byzantine empire, while the rest were under the rule of the Persians. The Byzantine and Persian empires were in conflict with each other over control of the Orient leading to constant wars between them.

The Christian Creed Because of the appearance of some foreign religious ideas that deviated from the exalted dogma of the church, the Christian Creed was determined by the two ecumenical councils, which took place in Nicea in 325 A.D. and in Constantinople in 381 A.D.

In the first council Arius was excommunicated for stating that Jesus was no more than the logos created by God whom he had sent to humanity as a religious messenger. He stated: "The Father existed before the Son was there. Then God created the Son who became His logos. The Son was created like the rest of creation. The Father gave him all power and he made heaven and earth."

In the second council Makdonios was excommunicated for denying the divinity of the Holy Spirit and said that the Holy Spirit was created by the Son and he is his servant. At the above councils the areas of jurisdiction were also determined for the three apostolic Sees of Rome, Antioch and Alexandria, then the forth See Constantinople. In the last council the prerogatives of these Sees were also determined after their geographical location and their closeness to the centers of civil and political power.

The Split of the Syrian Church These constant dogmatic debates between the Christian churches alienated the churches from each other and culminated in the split of the church. Hardest hit by this split was the Syrian church. It happened as a result of the anathematizing of Nestorius at the council of 431 A.D. in Ephesus. Nesters claimed that Jesus embodies two persons: God, the logos, and Jesus, the human. Because God cannot be subjected to natural influences, Mary only gave birth to the human Jesus, and therefore she cannot be called "Mother of God" (Theotokos). This means that Christ has two persons and two separate natures. (With this he cast doubt on the Christian faith of the Holy Trinity).

The Syrians, who accepted Nesters' ideas and did not follow the canon of Ephesus, were called Nestorians. They were persecuted by the Byzantine Empire. Thus, they fled to the Persian empire in South-Mesopotamia. In this way the Syrian church was divided into two. The Syrians living west of the Euphrates were called 'Syrians of the West' and they came directly under the Patriarch of Antioch. Those living east of the river Euphrates - also in Iraq -were called the 'Syrians of the East', most of them were Nestorians, except those who still came under the See of Antioch. Because of this geographical division, the Syrian language split into two dialects, namely the West-Syrian and the East-Syrian. The 'Syrians of the West' living in the Persian empire had to suffer heavily under oppression by the Persians. This happened not just because of their faith but because its spiritual leadership was residing in the hostile Byzantine empire. They were therefore accused of disloyalty.

When the Byzantine empire adopted the resolutions of the council of Chalcedon in 451, they began to oppress those who rejected these resolutions - first and foremost the members of the Syrian church. The church fathers and the believers had to endure various agonies like bans, killings and incarceration. Many of them, both clergy and laity, gained martyrdom.

Justinius I carried out one of these oppression against the members of the Syrian, Coptic and Armenian churches after his ascension to the Byzantine throne in 518 A.D. Because of that Patriarch Severius the Great was forced to make his way to Egypt. There he lived for 20 years and led the church through his representatives and letters.

After the death of Justinius I in the year 527 A.D. his nephew Justinian ascended the throne and with him his wife Theodora, the daughter of a priest from Manbij in Syria. She had pity for the oppressed, the banned and the incarcerated Syrians in Constantinople. For political and administrative considerations, she was not able to stop the oppression because the followers of the council of Chalcedon would have accused her husband of siding with the banned Syrians and being under the influence of his wife.

The Ghassanid Arabs had already founded an important Emirate. The Byzantine emperor commissioned their princes ("the Gafnan") with the reign over Syria. They were supposed to secure the border of the Byzantine empire against the attacks of the Arab tribes allied with the Persians. The Ghassanians held fast to their Syrian Church and defended its dogma. Empress Theodora met the wish of king Al Hareth Ibn Gabla to send some bishops into the areas occupied by the Byzantine Empire. She asked Patriarch Theodosius the Alexandrian, who was banned to Constantinople with Antimos the Patriarch of Constantinople, to consecrate the monk Jacob Baradäus as Metropolitan of Edessa, Syria and Asia Minor, as well as to consecrate the monk Theodor the Arab as Metropolitan of the Arabs in Bosra in 543 or 544 A.D. Immediately after the consecration, Mor Jacob went to work. Untiring he moved on foot with amazing speed from town to town incognito, disguised as a layman and always pursued by the Byzantine powers. In this way he crossed Syria, Armenia, Asia Minor, Cyprus, Rhodes, Chios, Egypt, Ethiopia, Mesopotamia, Persia and many more places strengthening the true faith of believers.

With two assistants whom he ordained as bishops according to the church canons he consecrated 27 bishops. With this he strengthened the members of the Syrian Orthodox Church as well as the Coptic and Armenian Churches in the faith that was decided on in the three ecumenical councils of Nicea, Constantinople and Ephesus. He also consecrated thousands of priests and deacons. Thus, the great apostolic striver was able to strengthen the foundations of the Syrian Church. As a result of this and out of hate and anger, the Syrian Church was called the Jacobite Church by its enemies. Although the Syrian Church is proud of Mor Jacob it rejects this name because Mor Jacob was neither its founder nor the author of a new dogma. He was one of its spiritual fathers who strengthened its members in the right faith they had received from the Apostles and the righteous church fathers. His steadfast holding up in the face of the Byzantine injustices is unprecedented and the church will always be proud of him. The church also holds the strong belief that the Lord Jesus lives in her midst and that "the gates of hell will not overcome it."

At the beginning of the 7th century Heraklios (610-641 A.D.) ascended the throne of the East-Roman Empire. After he defeated the Persians and conquered Mesopotamia, he forced his way into Syria in 612 A.D. In 629 A.D. he occupied Damascus. Following that he tried earnestly to restore the religious unity in his empire to unite the Syrians, Copts and Armenians with the Byzantines. This happened on the one hand through promises and on the other hand through threats. Very often he used ruthless oppression through which many Syrians, Copts, and Armenians became martyrs. The persecution of the Syrian Church by the Byzantine Empire did not end until the appearance of Islam.

Only through the campaigns of Islam in the first half of the 7th century was it possible to free the East from the Byzantines and the Persians. This happened with the help of the members of the Syrian Church; the original inhabitants of Syria of whom one part was of Aramaic origin who inhabited these areas for generations and another part was of Arabic origin. When the Arab Muslims marched into Syria they were welcomed by the Syrians who saw the new rulers as saviors who freed them from the yoke of the Byzantines because the Byzantines tried by force to assimilate them into the Byzantine Church. This was the church of the empire and membership in it would have meant compulsorily acceptance of the resolutions of Chalcedon: that Christ had two natures, the human eating, drinking and feeling pain and the divine making miracles. This would have been a denial of the dogma of their church fathers. The Syrians were also able through the cooperation with the Arab Muslims to retain their ecclesiastical dogma, the Antiochian See, their churches, monasteries, ecclesiastical inheritance and their liturgy.

The Position of the Syrians Toward the Islamic Conquest >From the above it becomes clear that the religious conflicts in the Christian church, the attempts of the Byzantine powers to force the issues of the council of Chalcedon upon the other churches by force, to throw its members in prison, to kill them, to ban them and to drive them out alienated the Syrian Christians. All these unchristian deeds only sowed hate and aversion in the hearts of the Syrians against the Byzantine powers. The Persian powers in their empire oppressed both West and East Syrians in general to force them under tyrannical policies and Zoroastrian beliefs. Therefore the Syrians under the Byzantine and Persian powers saw the Islamic conquerors as liberators and not as occupiers. The Syrians put great hope in them, not only because the Muslims liberated them from their religious trouble but also because they relieved the Syrians of the burdensome taxes that were placed on their backs. They said, "Praise be to God, who delivered us from the unjust Byzantines and who put us under the rule of the just Muslim Arabs."

The Religious Situation of the Arabs at the Time of the Rise of Islam The religious situation of the Arabs was confusing and disorganized. Some tribes were totally pagan. The split of the church distracted them from their task of spreading the Gospel. Thus, the time was favorable for the appearance of Islam on the Arab peninsula. We have to mention here that one part of the population of the Arab peninsula was pagan at the time of the appearance of Islam. The others were in name only followers of Abraham. It is mentioned in history that Christianity appeared in the first century on the peninsula. It spread with strength in the Syrian desert and in Iraq among many tribes like, Beni Taghleb, Beni Kalb; in Yemen, Tai, Bahraa, Salikh, Tennuch, Ghassaen and others who thus were prepared for accepting Islam later.

The dogma of Arius and Nesters that was anathematized at the ecumenical councils of Nicea (325 A.D.) and Ephesus (431 A.D.) were wide spread among the Christians on the peninsula. Added to this is that through rebellious members of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church some doubtful heretical religious statements in the name of Christianity were spread among some Arab tribes.

At the end of the 6th and the beginning of the 7th century, Qas Ibn-Sa-ida Al-Ayadi, bishop of Najran, was praised for his wisdom, poetry and the art of speech. Another famous man is named Waraqa Ibn Naufal Ibn Assad (who died about the year 611). He was the bishop of Mekka that was full of Christians. He was the cousin of Khadidga, daughter of Khuailid, the wife of Muhammad, the prophet. Most of the Christians of Mecca, Yemen and Najran were members of the Syrian Orthodox Church. The majority of Qurash was Christian. (The Christians were called 'Nazarians' after Jesus.) As manifold as the different dogma of the Christians of the Arab peninsula might have been, they exercised a great influence upon their Arab Muslims there.

We do not want to forget that the main religious dogma of Christianity and Islam are close to each other, such as the belief in one God who made heaven and earth, the belief in the day of judgment, the day of the resurrection, eternal life, heaven and hell, etc. There are also historical-religious events of the Syrians, which are mentioned in the Quran, like the Legend of the Cave and The Martyrs of the Furrow. For the Syrians the Legend of the Cave was an event with which God proves that He, the creator, can bring back to life the dead on the day of the resurrection. It was handed down in the Syriac language in excellent style, verse and prose. It belongs to the Syrian tradition and was studied thoroughly also by the great chroniclers like Zachariah the Rhetor (+536), John of Ephesus (+587), the Monk of Zuqnin (+775) and others. We also have a poem, containing 74 verses in 7-syllable meter, by Mor Jacob of Serugh (+521). The church remembers these Seven Sleepers on November 24 every year. They have their own liturgical prayer in which the truth of their sleeping and awakening is documented and handed down.

The Martyrs of the Furrow who are mentioned in the Quran are the Himyarite martyrs, the Syrian-Christian Arabs of Najran, who were persecuted by Mashruq the Jew, known as Dhu Nuwas, and thus gained martyrdom. Islam From the View of the Scientists of the Syrian Church All of the Syrian scientists who occupied themselves with the biography of the prophet Muhammad described his qualities and noble character traits. Because of lack of space we will content ourselves with the testimony of Bar Haebraus, Maphrian of the East (1286 A.D.) who summarized the life of the prophet Muhammad in his book Chronicle of the Dynasties as follows : "(Muhammad Ibn Abdallah, Peace be upon him) The biographies of Muhammad mentioned that he is from Ishmael, the son of Abraham, whom Hagar gave birth to . . . He was born in Mecca in the year 882 (after the Seleucid era that is 571 A.D.). When he was about two years old, his father Abdallah died. His mother, Amina, the daughter of Wahab, stayed with him for six years. After her death his grandfather Abdul Muttaleb took him and vouched for him. When he was about to die, he asked his son Abu Talib to take care of him. When he was nine years old, his uncle took him along to Syria.

When they arrived in Bosra, a clairvoyant monk called Bahira met them and stepped towards them. When he came to the child, he held his hand and said: 'This boy will become a great man, and his fame will go across borders because when he came he was shaded by a cloud.' When he was 25 years old an honorable, noble and rich woman called Khadija offered that he run her business in Syria. She wanted to pay him more than anyone else. He took the offer. Then she wanted to marry him and offered herself in marriage. She was 40 years old when he married her. They lived 22 years together. Then she died in Mecca. When Muhammad turned 40 he began his mission. After the death of his uncle and his wife, the tribe of "Quarisch" harmed him so he emigrated to Al-Medina (which is Yathrib). In the first year of his emigration he was celebrated by the people and they supported him against his enemies in Mecca . . . In the 10th year of his emigration he went on his last pilgrimage and in this year he got sick. Two days before the end of the month Safar, on a Monday, he died at the age of 63. The people of Mecca wanted to bury him in Mecca where he was born. The population of Al-Medina, however, wanted to bury him in their city because he emigrated there. Others, for their part, wanted to bury him in Jerusalem because that was the place where prophets were buried. In the end all parties agreed to bury him in Al-Medina in the same room where he had died."

To gain a better overview of the prophet, we add to the before mentioned: The messenger Muhammad converted the Arabs during their feast gatherings and many believed in his teachings. He had to leave Mecca to evade the persecution of the Qurischians. The population of Al-Medina welcomed him and supported him. Later he had to take up the sword to protect the fruits of his mission from its enemies. Therefore, he armed armies and led invasions. Among the important wars is the great Badr invasion in which the Muslims won a great victory. Among the good deeds of the Muslims are counted the buying of the prisoners' freedom through teaching: The money to buy the prisoners freedom was collected in that every prisoner of Quarisch had to teach ten children of Al-Medina reading and writing. The wealthy could buy their relatives free with money also. Before every invasion the messenger instructed his armies with these words: "You will find men who withdrew into cells; do not disturb them, kill no woman, no child, no old man and do not cut down a tree." In this way the messenger Muhammad wanted to proclaim his message in the world as brotherly and just and by keeping freedom and human rights. Whoever studies the Quran in- depth will understand that the messenger Muhammad was not sent to force people into Islam. The following verses in the Quran confirm this truth: "It is not for you to guide them: God guides whom he will." (Sura 2, The Cow, verse 272)

"There is no compulsion in matters of faith. Distinct is the way of guidance now from error. He who turns away from the forces of evil and believes in God, will surely hold fast to a handle that is strong and unbreakable, for God hears all and knows every thing. (Sura 2, The Cow, verse 256)

"And tell the people of the book and the heathens: 'Do you submit?' If they do, they will find the right path; if they turn away, your duty is to deliver the message. And God keeps an eye on His votaries." (Sura 3, The Family of Imran, verse 20)

"Call them to the path of your Lord with wisdom and words of good advice; and reason with them in the best way possible. Your Lord surely knows who strays from his path, and he knows those who are guided the right way." (Sura 16, The Bees, verse 125)

"We have sent down this book to you with the truth for all humanity. So, he who comes to guidance does so for himself, and he who goes astray does so for his own loss; on you does not lie their guardianship." (Sura 39, The Small Groups, verse 41)

The Quran speaks for the Christians and recognizes their holy books through the following verses:

"If you are in doubt of what we have sent down to you then ask those who have been reading the Book (for a long time) before you. The truth has indeed come to you from your Lord, so do not be one of those who doubt." (Sura 10, Jonah, verse 94)

"You will find the Jews and idolaters most excessive in hatred of those who believe; and the closest in love to the faithful are the people who say: 'we are the followers of Christ,' because there are priests and monks among them, and they are not arrogant." (Sura 5, The Feast, verse 82)

The Quran also attests, that Jesus was not born of human conception but that God breathed his Spirit into Mary. In addition there are sayings in the Quran that summarize the supernatural appearance of Christ. The Quran attests also the creative power of Jesus Christ. This testimony was not given to anybody else. Thus, it says the following in the Sura of Al Umran: "The angels said: "O Mary, God gives you a new thing from Him, for rejoicing, (news of one) whose name will be Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, illustrious in this world and the next, and one among the honored, who will speak to the people when in the cradle and when in the prime of life, and will be among the upright and doers of good." She said: "How can I have a son, O Lord, when no man has touched me." He said: "That is how God creates what he wills. When he decrees a thing, he says, 'Be', and it is. He will teach him the Law and the judgment, and the Torah and the Gospel, and he will be Apostle to the children of Israel, (saying:) 'I have come to you with a prodigy from your Lord that I will fashion the state of destiny out of mire for you, and breathe (a new spirit) into it, and you will rise by the will of God. I will heal the blind and the leper, and infuse life into the dead, by the leave of God. I will tell you what you devour and what you hoard in your homes. In this will be a portent for you if you do believe." (Sura 3, The Family of Imran, verse 45-49)

The messenger Muhammad also gave all Christians a covenant, which we will repeat because of its importance. In it is shown the noble character and sense of justice of the Messenger. This testimony is kept still in some monasteries until this day.

He said: "In the name of Allah, the compassionate, the merciful! This is a writing written by Muhammad Ibn Abdallah to all people as messenger, preacher, admonisher, and the one responsible so that nothing is kept from the messengers of God. God is powerful and wise. He writes it for the Christians all over the earth who live here or abroad, who speak Arabic or other languages, known and unknown. He gives them a covenant. He who annuls it, who practices the opposite, who oversteps the commandments, annuls the testament of God, denies its agreement, laughs about his religion, and earns a curse whoever he is, a ruler or another Muslim.

When a monk or someone passes through seeking refuge on a mountain, in a valley, in a cave, in a house, on flat land, on sand or in a church, then I with my helpers, relatives, my tribe and my followers will do what they can for him with enthusiasm because he is a member of the community and stands under my protection and I keep all harm from him. The persons affected shall only be taxed with so much tax as they are freely willing to pay without force or pressure; no bishop shall be moved from his bishopric, no monk from his monastery, no hermit from his cell to another city; no one passing through shall be hindered in his traveling. No house, no church building shall be torn down. None of the riches of their churches shall be used either for the building of a mosque or a house for Muslims. Whoever does anything like this violates the testament of God and his messengers. The bishops and God's workers shall be burdened with neither taxes nor fines. I protect them wherever they may be - be they on land or on sea, in the east or in the west, in the north or in the south. They are under my protection and safe from any need.

Added to this is: Whoever prays to God as a hermit in the mountains or in a blessed place does not have to pay for the sowing, nor the taxes, nor the tithing; one is not allowed to take a part because they only earn their own living and nobody helps them with their harvest. They are also not required to go to sea. The land and estate owners shall not pay more than twelve Dirham's per year; none of them shall be burdened with excesses and one shall not debate with them but rather do better than them as a good example, showing mercy and keeping them from tragedies.

When Christianity has come under the rule of Islam then the Muslims shall be satisfied to let them pray in their churches and no obstacle shall stand between them and their inclination to religion. Whoever violates God's testament, who does the opposite, is disobedient before God and his messenger. The Muslims shall be helpful to them, the Christians, with the restoration of their churches and houses. None of them is obliged to carry weapons because the Muslims protect them. Nobody shall offend against this testament until the day of the last judgment and until the end of the world."

The Syrians and the Arab-Islamic Conquests There were many psychological, social and religious reasons for the Syrians, the indigenous inhabitants in the Byzantine Syria, to welcome the Muslim Arab conquerors coming out of the Arab peninsula. Because the Syrians, as we have mentioned above, suffered a lot under the Byzantine yoke in Syria. They were also oppressed by the Persians because the Persians tried to force the Syrians to pay high taxes and through barbaric treatment and bloodshed to force them to switch from their faith to their Zoroastrian religion. The apparent reason for the oppression of the Syrians by the Byzantines was the rejection of the resolutions of Chalcedon (451 A.D.). The true reason, however, was the fact that from the Syrian's national consciousness thoughts of freedom movements flamed up anew. They wanted to free their country from the colonizing Byzantine control. In addition the Byzantines robbed Syria of its wealth - especially it's wheat. It is not surprising that an inner resistance spread in the hearts of the Syrians because of the Byzantine oppression so that the Syrians welcomed the Muslim Arabs as liberators of their country. This happened especially because many Arab tribes in Iraq and Syria were members of the Syrian Orthodox faith. These tribes felt obliged to support the Arabic Muslims despite the difference of their faith for they were related by blood, language, and culture.

Thus most of them, like the tribes Taghleb, Uqail, Tennuch and Rabia in the north and west of Iraq, joined the Muslim fighters under the leadership of Al-Muthanna Ibn Haritha and fought with them. In the year 651 A.D. the Persians were defeated and their last king Yezed Jared fled the country. History tells us that a Syrian Christian boy from the Taghlebites killed the Persian leader Marzaban Mihran took his horse and shouted with a loud voice: "I have killed Marzaban." The conquering army marched towards Byzantine Syria, they entered Damascus in 634 A.D. and Jerusalem 637 A.D. They came to Alexandria in the year 638 where they were welcomed by the Copts in the same way as they had been welcomed by the Syrians in Syria before.

The Syrians Under the Islamic Rule Keeping their faith, the Syrians fought together with the Muslim Arabs against the colonists and freed their land and afterwards they supported them in the building of a new empire. History tells of their creative power in all areas of science and culture.

Despite our lack of time we want to dwell on a few points of the common history between Syrians and Muslims and acknowledge the positive events from the reports of trustworthy chroniclers, avoiding the negative events because they do not build up. At the same time we assure you that the unjust deeds on the side of the Arab-Muslim army during and after the conquest happened relatively seldom in comparison to similar conquests of other armies. We are going to mention the names of a group of Syrian characters who found favor with the Islamic Arab rulers and served them faithfully, which at the same time held fast onto the Christian faith and their Syrian Church. This leads us also to the strong relationship between Islamic Arabs and sons of the Syrian Church and the fact that holding fast to Christianity does not oppose pride in one's nation or faithful service to it.

The Viscount Philip de Tarazi says in his book The Golden Era of the Syrians: "The Syrians won the trust and respect of the 'Rashidic' caliphs (632-661), the caliphs of the Ommayads (662-746) and the Abbasids (750-1258). The first Syrian who won their trust was Mansur Ibn Johanna the Syrian who became finance minister in the epoch of the 'Raschids'. His son Sargon as well as his grandson John - known as Saint John of Damascus (749) - took over the office of work and tax income in the reign of the Ommayads."

The Caliphates' Treatment of the Syrians and All Christians Umar Ibn Al-Khattab was the first "Rashidic" Caliph who was called the "Emir Al- Muminin" (Prince of the Believers). He also was called "Al Faruk" because he knew how to distinguish between justice and injustice. The Syrians confirmed this name but interpret it differently. The Syrians say that the word stems from the Syriac word "Faruqo" which means savior. This name was given to the divine savior, Jesus Christ, and then to the "Rashidic" Caliph Umar. They gave out the slogan: "Thanks be to God who liberated us from the rule of the oppressive Byzantines and who put us under the rule of the just Muslim Arabs." Of this historical position of the Syrians' gratefulness to Muslims and the honoring of their good deeds we want to recount a few exemplary deeds by the Muslim Caliphs.

Of all these deeds we must name the famous action of Umar Ibn Al Khattab in Jerusalem. When the Caliph was visiting Jerusalem he found himself in the nave of the Church of the Resurrection during prayer time. He did not want to pray in this church but instead he went outside and prayed alone on the step in front of it. When asked for the reason he answered: "If I had prayed in that church then the Muslims would have turned that church into a mosque after my death and said: "Umar has prayed here." Then he ordered the Muslims in a document to pray on the step of a church only one at a time, not to say community prayers and not to call upon God with a loud voice. Many written documents stem from Umar in which he grants safety and protection to Syrian-Christian churches as well as their monasteries. The treatment of the Christians was positive and the Christians paid their taxes in return for their protection like those who were under Persian rule. One of the negatives that took place during the reign of Caliph Umar Ibn Al-Khattab was the document that contains Umar's conditions that did not preserve the honor of the Christians.

The Syrians were granted a good position by the Ommayads. Many of them were appointed to administrative offices and during their era the Arabic scientific renaissance began in which many Syrian scientists and authors participated through translating their sciences as well as the Greek ones into Arabic. They reached high positions in the administration and occupied important offices.

So, we see that caliph Abdul Malek Ibn Marwan (685-705) entrusted Athanasius Bar Gumoya, the Syrian from Edessa, with the administration of finances in Egypt. He proved himself through his time of service with regard to government income significantly benefiting for the Ommayads.

Caliph Marwan (744-750) wrote in the year 746 a letter of authorization (Firman) for Patriarch Iwannis IV (740-755) which authorized the Patriarch to conduct all church business independently. This was the first document of its kind that was given to a Syrian Patriarch. From this point on it became the custom to hand out such a letter of authorization (Firman). It is important to report that the translation of the Gospels from Syriac into Arabic took place in this epoch through Patriarch John Abu Sederatt (+648). With this translation he fulfilled the wish of Prince Umair Ibn Saad Ibn Abi Waqqas, Prince of Mesopotamia. It is worth mentioning that the prince asked for the passages in the translation that dealt with the divinity of Jesus (regarding the crucifixion and the baptism) to be cut out. To this the Patriarch replied heroically: "God prevent that I cut or add one single letter even if all the spears of your army were pointed at me." The prince was impressed with the heroic position of the Patriarch and entrusted him with the translation. For the implementation of this translation the Patriarch called together some bishops and linguists of both Syriac and Arabic from the tribes of the Bani Tennuch, Uqail and Tai. They then translated the holy gospels under his supervision which he then handed over to the prince.

At the time of the Ommayads there lived a famous poet named Al Achtal. He belonged to the Taghleb tribe and was a member of the Syrian Orthodox Church. He was born in Mesopotamia and grew up there. He enjoyed a good reputation among the caliphs of the Ommayads. Caliph Abdul Mallek Ibn Marwan (685 - 705) said to him after the poet praised this Caliph in one of his poems: "Oh Achtal, do you want that I write to all countries and tell them that you are the best poet of the Arabs?" Achtal replied to this: "It is enough when the prince of the believers says it."

Achtal held on to his faith. He was allowed to visit the Caliph Abdul Malak without permission, wearing a silk robe and with a golden chain around his neck on which hung a golden cross. His bishop is said to have locked him up once in the church because of harassment and abuse, although the poet said about himself: "I have not written a satirical poem about anyone that a virgin could not have written about her father." Then when one of the noble Arabs asked for his release and the poet was released by the bishop, the noble Arab asked the poet with astonishment: "How can a man with such high regards from the caliph tolerate such a shameful punishment from a bishop?" Achtal answered: "It is the religion, it is the religion. Be silent with the silent!"

In the era of the Abbasids, many excellent translations were made and from the ranks of the Syrians many great scientists, translators and doctors emerged. At the time of Harun Al-Rashid (766 - 809) the Syrian scientist Johanna Ibn Masaweh became famous. Caliph Harun Al-Rashid entrusted him with the translation of the old books. He enjoyed a good reputation with the Caliph and his successors until the Caliph Al Mutawakkel.

Thus the Syrians translated the Greek sciences into their language and then into Arabic. The Syrians founded universities for the various sciences and literature. Therefore, the sciences developed enormously during the era of the Abbassids.

The Syrians participated faithfully in the tasks of the state. As an example we report about Patriarch Dionysius of Tel Mahri ( 845) whom caliph Al Mamun (813 - 833) entrusted with a political mission. He went to Egypt in order to cooperate with the Caliph and with Patriarch Yosab of Alexandria in pulling down the threatening Christian revolt in the lower Nile.

Among the Syrians who served the successors of the Abbassids was the famous doctor and secretary of state Abu Karam Saaed Ibn Touma of Baghdad who is to be mentioned for his noble character, Christian virtue, his faithfulness and sincerity. He enjoyed the full trust of Caliph Al-Naser (1180 - 1225), he even was his favorite. The Caliph entrusted him with all his family and state secrets. Now it happened that the eyesight of the Caliph got worse and for that reason he asked a woman Sit Nasim to write all his papers for him. The handwriting of the woman was very much like that of the Caliph. When she handed the minister a paper, the minister thought it was from the Caliph himself and executed the orders contained therein. She hatched a plot with a eunuch named Tag Ed-Din Rashiq, in which she sent forged letters to the minister. In the course of time the prime minister became suspicious and asked the doctor and minister of state Abu Karam Saaed Ibn Touma of Baghdad about the health of the Caliph. The doctor reported on the health condition of the caliph and also reported that a woman was writing all letters instead of the caliph. When the woman noticed that she was exposed she sent someone who killed the Minister of State.

At the time when the Tartars occupied large areas of Asia and Europe, the armies under the leadership of Genghis Khan in the 13th century gained their decisive striking power. In this time the wise Syrian Abu Salem of Malta (Malatya) - known as Ibn Kraba - served Sultan Ala-Ed-Din Kaybaqad (1219 - 1236) and enjoyed a good reputation.

History also mentions that the Patriarch Ignatius IV. (1264 - 1283) went to the capital of the Tartars ("Attaq") and visited Holako. From him he received an authorization letter (Firman) for his Antiochian Patriarchate. Another time the Patriarch was on his way to visit king Abaqa - the son of Holako - and his heir to the throne. From him he again received an authorization letter (Firman). The monk-priest Schemun the Syrian was Holakos' private doctor. In the year 1258 Baghdad fell to the Mongols who then professed Islam in 1295. Professor Wolfgang Hage said in a lecture about Syrian history:

"The Syrian Orthodox Church as well as the other churches in the Near East were weakened when at the end of the 13th century the Mongols, penetrating from inner Asia, professed Islam and were not as just as the Muslim Arabs. Oriental Christianity was literally decimated finally through the cruel representative of the Mongolian-Islamic fanaticism: Timur the Lame (1336 - 1405) around 1400 went through Mesopotamia, Syria and Asia Minor and understood himself as the deadly enemy of Christianity. He destroyed Baghdad in 1393. He forced the Syrians and the other Christians to accept Islam and persecuted those who refused. Many of them were martyred. Diseases followed the massacres and only ten percent of the Christians remained."

This historical truth that Professor Wolfgang has mentioned reveals that our people suffered in that historical era at the hand of a non-Arab Muslim leader who didn't honor the covenants that were given to the Christians by the Arab prophet and the rightly guided caliphs and the Ommayads and the Abbasids to protect them and their rights. He did not respect the covenants but he slaughtered them and destroyed their churches, monasteries and schools. Most of their precious manuscripts were lost and this is considered a great loss to all civilized humanity.

Holding this before one's eyes, one does not have to emphasize what undescribable misery, harm, deprivation and death the people in this region suffered. Over and above that we do not have to mention what irretrievable works of the different areas of science and especially theology have been lost through the burning of churches, monasteries and schools. "During these centuries the Syrian Orthodox Church shrunk to a small faith community who in modern times lived in a united area again (now the Ottoman) but was never able to regain their former size and importance."

At the beginning of the 15th century the Ottomans conquered a great part of Asia Minor. In the middle of the 15th century - also in the year 1453 - the Byzantine empire collapsed with the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans.

In this quick journey through the centuries we stopped at certain points along the way where we thought it useful. We got to know some of the religious, scientific and political personalities. We also tried to uncover the background reasons for the decline in membership and the suffering of the Syrian church over the centuries. Now we know how she fought to survive and what she did to protect her inheritance as well as her faith. After she survived weakened by the fight with the Byzantine rule, she breathed a sigh of relief with the rise of Islam. There was cooperation in peaceful and unsettled times. We have also seen how their relationship with the Muslim authorities changed like the ebb and flow of the sea and how the church fathers went about it according to the commandment of Jesus Christ: "so be wise as serpents and innocent as doves!" (Mt 10:16).

After the fall of the empire of the Abbassids the land came under the rule of a variety of non-Arab Muslim sultans. Unsure times began for the churches: They lost many of their members. They were further weakened when the Ottomans took power and after strengthening of their ruling power played with the destinies of the people.

The most dangerous enemy, however, that attacked and almost destroyed the Syrian Orthodox Church at its foundation was the ignorance and the spiritual irresponsibility that spread out in their own ranks at the end of the 13th century. The chaos began to get out of hand when hate, tribal thinking and provincialism broadened. This chaotic state of the church is also explainable from the fact that the church had three Antiochian patriarchs at the same time: one in Sis who was followed by the Syrians of Cilikia, one in Tur Abdin for the people there, and one in Mardin for all Syrians of the East. The patriarchate of Tur Abdin lasted 130 years and the one in Sis 152 years. In this way they tore the body of Christ apart. When the Patriarch Behnam Hadi Al Bartali reigned on the See of Mardin (1412), he was able to bring about the unity of the Syrian-Antiochian See. He died in 1454. Because we are trying to uncover the reasons for the growing weakening of the church we have to go into the terrible happenings of the years 1895, and especially 1915 - 1921, in which the church had to suffer from the Ottomans. During these years the church lost thousands upon thousands of innocent martyrs although the church was very loyal to the land of its grandfathers. She obeyed the civil power. The church has rejected the patronage of foreign governments because she has firm faith that God will protect her.

"Despite the low numbers of church members the Syrian Church was able to reconsolidate. The church believes firmly that her existence until now is a sign that God lives in her midst, strengthens her, lets her flourish and not disintegrate. She embodies now the faith handed down by the holy apostles and the Syrian inheritance deeply rooted in her history. She tries to preserve her holy Syriac language, the language of Jesus. She seeks a constructive cooperation with all peoples of the earth for the welfare of all humanity.

Time does not allow us to talk about the relationship between the Syrian Church and Islam and others in this time. That is because the geographical location of the Syrian Church has expanded through the emigration of its children all over the world and their different relationships with many peoples who believe in many faiths.

Conclusion In conclusion, I am glad to thank you for your patience and attentiveness and express my thanks to the honorable authorities at Humboldt University in Berlin for inviting me and giving me a chance to talk to them.

You will surely share my opinion that the fear, terror and persecution the Syrian Christians in the whole world had suffered throughout the ages was from the oppression of strange governments. Also, disasters had repeatedly arisen as a result of the distance from God by some Syrians and other Christians through their distancing themselves from the sources of Christian teaching and its translation into good works. Therefore, even in this generation we shouldn't be surprised to hear from some who have studied the Gospels and got to know Jesus Christ what once Ghandi - the leader of the Indian independence movement - said: "We want your Christ but not your Christianity." This may also be true for our brothers the Muslims. But we do not want to judge the others. We want to call ourselves to account. The split of the Christian church is a big mistake, a blasphemy of the Holy Spirit and an ignoring of the existence of Christ who promised: "... the gates of hell will not prevail against it." (Mt 16:18) I invite you to stand before history for a moment to see the result of our divisions. You will see the bloodshed of thousands of innocents, righteous men have suffered and been expelled from their countries. We thank God that Christian churches in this generation began to feel the necessity of continuing the Christian dialogue and as a result they have drawn closer to each other and planned for continuous meetings at various levels to study different subjects. The unity of Christianity can only happen in and around Christ, who is the head of the church and we with all our doctrines are only parts of the holy body of Christ.

Satan is still at work. He brings about disturbances, constantly encourages new splits and wants from this the tearing apart of the body of Christ, that is the Church. We have to be careful. Politics usually uses religion to reach its worldly goals. We should limit our talks to spiritual themes because the kingdom of Christ is not of this world. We do not want the unity of Christianity to fight against other religions. Instead we want unity to reach our goal more quickly; that is the constructive dialogue with others who believe in God and here especially with the Muslims with whom we share one homeland. Let us learn from history. Let us avoid what splits us. Let us walk the way that leads to a better understanding, to a life in which love and peace rule."

"Monastic Life in the Syrian Orthodox Church of Antioch"
#1: Patriarchal Journal vol. 87-89 - September-November 1990 #2: Patriarchal Journal vol. 156 - June 1996.

1. Introduction We call the monastic life a philosophy of Christian law and character. It is a way of abandoning worldly life. It is filled with yearning to attain life hereafter. In the monastic life, acts countenanced and proscribed in the world are to be avoided; the desires of the flesh are to be disciplined; all wanton impulses are to be checked, everything that cannot be brought into harmony with the true Christian faith is to be avoided. 2. The Eremitic Life Monastic life began with individuals seeking reclusion for the purpose of praying to God. It was individual self denial. Each ascetic sought a life separated from society. Where possible he took his abode far from human settlements where he could come closer to God through prayer and fasting in his quest for eternal life.

3. Cenobitism The eremitic setting developed into a spiritual community life as groups of ascetics came together under the leadership of a spiritually experienced leader or father in order to be initiated into the practice of the true ascetic life. At a later date monasteries were built to house the monastic community. They were headed by a father or abbot with a great deal of experience in monastic and ascetic living. This type of monastic life was called cenobitism.

Rules were set and internal orders for the monasteries were elaborated to regulate the spiritual life of the community among monks and their relationship with the abbot of the monastery. These rules also governed relations between his representatives and assistants, the wise and venerable scholars who initiated the novices into monastic living by instructing and watching over them.

Despite the existence of these monasteries, the anchoritic way of life persisted. Ascetics and hermits took their abode in caves and in hermitages. Many of them spent the weekdays in reclusion. On Sunday mornings they gathered in monasteries to celebrate the Mass with their brothers and the abbot, to participate with them in the agape meal, then return to their habitations.

4. Monastic life in the Pre-Christian Religions In the pre-christian religions, there were no lack of practices resembling Christian asceticism and monastic life, such as fasting, prayer, and exhausting the body through hard physical labor to discipline bodily desires and to check wanton impulses in an effort to attain enlightenment of the spirit.

However, these practices are far removed from the spirit of penance in which the Christian monk strives to live a perfect life in accordance with the Gospel. For if the monk subjects his body to such hardships, he does so not for the sake of torment but in order to master his body, to give the spirit room to develop, to practice a virtuous life and to acquire good character. It is therefore erroneous to see the origins of Christian monastic life in pre-christian religions such as that of ancient Egypt, in Buddhism or even Judaism.

5. Asceticism in the Old Testament However, it cannot be denied that the prophet Elijah mentioned in the Old Testament was a model for the anchorites who withdrew from the world with all its temptations.

We read how God commanded him: "Leave this place and turn eastward; and go into hiding in the ravine of Kerith east of the Jordan river. You shall drink form the river, and I have commanded the ravens to feed you there.' He did as the Lord had told him; he went and stayed on the bank of the river of Kerith east of Jordan, and the ravens brought him bread and meat morning and evening, and he drank from the river" (1 Kings 17:2-6).

John the Baptist, too, lived the life of an ascetic. He grew up in the desert: "John was dressed in a rough coat of camel's hair, with a leather belt round his waist, and he fed on locusts and wild honey" (Mark 1:6).

6. The Origins of Christian Monastic Life The fundamental tenets of Christian monastic life are based on the imitation of the life of Christ on Earth and on obedience to his sublime teachings. Our Lord Jesus withdrew into the solitude of the desert and fasted there for forty days and forty nights. We are told: "He went about doing good and healing all who were oppressed by the devil, for God was with him" (Acts 10:38). And he chose to live in poverty. The apostle Paul writes: "For you know how generous our Lord Jesus Christ has been; he was rich, yet for your sake he became poor, so that through his poverty you might become rich" (2 Corinthians 8:9). And he had no abode.

On one occasion a scribe came to Jesus and said: "Master, I will follow you wherever you go.' Jesus replied, 'Foxes have their holes, the birds their roosts; but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head'" (Matthew 8:19-20). And his disciples gathered alms to satisfy his and their own material needs. When he sent them out to preach the Gospel, he commanded them: "Go and proclaim the message: The Kingdom of Heaven is upon you. Heal the sick, raise the dead, cleanse leapers, cast out devils. You received without cost; give without charge. Provide no gold, silver, or copper to fill your purse, no pack for the road, no second coat, no shoes, no stick, the worker earns his keep" (Matthew 10:7-10).

This divine command constitutes the basis for the vow of voluntary poverty which the monk takes. Celibacy, however, has its origin in the teaching of Christ: "...For while some are incapable of marriage because they were born so, or were made to by men, there are others who have themselves renounced marriage for the sake of the Kingdom of Heaven. Let those accept it who can" (Matthew 19:12). The apostles thus recognized the true meaning of chastity and the advantages it has over marriage. On this subject the apostle Paul wrote to the Corinthians: "Now concerning the things of which you wrote to me: It is good for a man not to touch a woman. He who is unmarried cares for the things of the Lord -- how he may please the Lord. But he who is married cares about the things of the world - how he may please his wife. There is a difference between a wife and a virgin. The unmarried woman cares about the things of the Lord, that she may be holy both in body and in spirit. But she who is married cares about the things of the world - how she may please her husband" (1 Corinthians 7:32-34).

In Christianity, monastic life arose as a necessary consequence of following the teachings of Christ. The goal was to attain Christian perfection through self-denial. In the imitation of Christ one sought to come closer to God and to keep to his path, devoting one's entire being to this aim. The Holy Cross was borne, and strict obedience was to be given to the divine command which He gave to the man who came to Jesus and asked what good works he could do to attain eternal life. Jesus answered him, saying: "If you wish to go the whole way, go, sell your possessions, and give to the poor, and then you will have riches in heaven; and come, follow me" (Mt 19:21). The monastic life was to be guided in all things by the words Jesus Christ spoke to His disciples: "If anyone wishes to be a follower of mine, he must leave self behind; he must take up his cross and come with me. Whoever cares for his own safety is lost; but if a man will let himself be lost for my sake, he will find his true self. What will a man gain by winning the whole world, at the cost of his true self? Or what can he give that will buy that self back? For the Son of Man is to come in the glory of his Father with his angels, and then he will give each man the due reward for what he has done" (Mt 16:24-27). Jesus also said: "I tell you this: there is no one who has given up home, brothers or sisters, mother, father or children, or land, for my sake and for the Gospel, who will not receive in this age a hundred times as much - houses, brothers and sisters, mothers and children, and land - and persecutions besides; and in the age to come eternal life" (Mark 10:29-30).

7. The Real Motives for Those Who Seek Monastic Life In the first chapter of his book The Book of the Dove, Bar Haebraeus ( 1286) stated the reasons for a human being to seek a life in seclusion from the world:

"A man withdraws from the world and its temptations for two reasons; the first and principal of these is Divine inspiration that arises in a person's thinking, which arouses him from slumber to confront him day and night with the suffering that awaits sinners in the hereafter and with the eternal life that is promised to the just in the Kingdom of Heaven. This happens but seldom and is granted only to a few at different places and at different times.

The second reason, by contrast, is unreal and worthy reproach, arising from the desire of human beings for futile glory, a desire that comes upon a man, urging him to attain his goal through the arduous practice of asceticism. Some wealthy people, however, have sought to attain glory by spending large amounts of money. This has occurred everywhere and with great frequency. Although such conduct is to be rejected, it ought not to be dismissed outright, for there are many seeds that fall to the ground by chance and which bring forth good fruit, and others that are sown with great effort and which bear no fruit."

8. Monastic Vows True monastic life is obedience to a hidden call from God. The monk gives proof of his devout purpose in his quest for Christian perfection in the endeavor to bring his will into unison with the will of God. Through penance he attains the state of grace, of righteousness, of sanctification, and of communion with God by acting in accordance with the will of God and not according to his own will. He withdraws from the world. The pious monk seeks to achieve this observing three vows, which he makes publicly by his own free will. These vows are the following:

8.1 Absolute obedience to his spiritual superior.

8.2 Voluntary poverty, signifying that he may take nothing from the world as his personal property.

8.3 Celibacy, enjoining him never to marry and to remain chaste. These vows are faithful promises that the monk must keep to the end of his life. Moreover, the sum of his vows and promises constitutes a covenant between God and the monk which binds him for his entire life, and the breach of which places him in danger of eternal damnation. Besides these three vows there are Christian duties enjoined on the monk, like prayer, fasting and the giving of alms. He must give alms from the little money he saves from the sale of wares made to earn his living. The monk must keep long vigil at night, be reserved and indulge in no idle talk.

As we have mentioned above, a person might devote himself to the monastic life for a mundane and not divine reason, for the sake of transitory glory. The spiritual scholars advise that this ought not to be rejected out of hand, since a person may set out with such an aim nevertheless attain the love of God. They include those who withdraw into the desert to escape a martyr's death and human tyranny. But, they continue their ascetic practices like fasting, prayer, and nocturnal vigils. Some of them thus attain the perfection of a true Christian and are a good example to others.

9. Factors Contributing to the Flowering and Spread of Monastic Life The decree issued by the Emperor Constantine the Great in Milan in 313 contributed to the flourishing of monastic life in the 4th century, which is also referred to as the century of monastic life. Through this decree Christianity, for the first time in history, was recognized as a religion enjoying the same legal rights as other religions.

Emperor Constantine's next step was to free unmarried people and childless married couples from the heavy poll taxes that had been imposed on them. It was said that many people abandoned their families and fled into the desert to avoid paying this tax. In addition, monks could no longer be conscripted for military service. Such measures encouraged thousands of young men to seek monastic life, to submit to the duties and rules of the monastic life, and thus to lead a simple life in complete reclusion from the world.

In their cells many of them brought forth rich spiritual fruits thanks to those who instructed them in the spiritual life. They distanced themselves from material, everyday life, achieving greater independence from bodily needs and worldly-intellectual influences. Neoplatonic philosophy, which influenced some of the ascetic church fathers helped to bring monastic life to fruition.

10. Who is the True Monk? The monastic life is a state of constant penance. That monk acquires the qualities of loving kindness and of resisting evil is the best evidence of his devout resolve to take his place in the blessed life of a monastic order.

He might come to have doubts about the step he has taken and to consider returning to society. But if he resists this temptation and submits to the duties of monastic life by living in obedience to is spiritual mentors he will overcome this challenge. Even if his vocation is not from God, his constant prayer and the fulfillment of his duties will make it a divine one.

The tenacious struggle of the monk against the devil and his snares is a constant and relentless one. But, the love of the monk for God is mightier than life and death. For with Christ he has crucified the temptations of the flesh, he has taken upon himself the cross of Christ, which is the sign of departure from this world. He accepts abuse and revilement for Christ's sake in order to live with Christ. In the words of Paul: "I have been crucified with Christ: the life I now live is not my life, but the life which Christ lives in me" (Galatians 2:19-20).

Therefore, nothing can separate the monk from the love of Jesus: "For I am convinced that there is nothing in death or life, in the realm of spirits or superhuman powers, in the world as it is or the world as it shall be, in the forces of the universe, in heights or depths -- nothing in all creation that can separate us from the love of God in Christ Jesus our Lord" (Romans 8:38-39).

The monk also heeds the counsel of the wise Solomon, through whom God said: "My son, mark my words, and accept my guidance with a will." (Proverbs 23:26) And, on this subject St. Musche Bar Kipho advises the monk: "My son, if you have devoted yourself entirely to the love and fear of God, hesitate no longer, fight with great courage and be a great warrior who enters the arena to destroy his enemies. "

11. The Spiritual Struggle of the Monk Saint Aphrem ( 373) describes the philosophy of the monastic way in a precious Syriac poem in which he portrays how he trained his soul through privation and the hardships of life and prepared it for the struggle against the temptations of the flesh:

11.1 Many times have I suffered hunger and my body has called for nourishment, I have abstained to become worthy of the blessedness that those who fast attain.

11.2 My body, made of dust, sought to still its thirst, but I spurned it in wrath that it might become worthy to savor the dew of the Kingdom of God. 11.3 And when in my youth and in my old age my body sought to tempt me, I chastened it day after day to the end.

11.4 On the morning of each day I thought that I would die in the evening. And like a man who cannot escape death I attended to the labors of the day without trepidation or tedium.

11.5 Each evening I imagined that the next morning I would no longer be alive. So I arose and prayed to God and worshipped him until the rising of the sun.

11.6 When my body pleaded for the sleep I sorely needed, I lured it with the blessedness that God bestows on those who keep vigil.

11.7 I have built a church in my soul, and I have offered up to the Lord the travail of my body as incense and fragrance.

11.8 My spirit became the altar, my will the priest, and like a lamb without blemish I sacrifice myself.

11.9 Lord, I have borne your yoke from youth to old age, and I have worshipped you constantly to the end of my days, I have spared no pain nor suffered tedium.

11.10 I have borne the sufferings of hunger and overcome them, for I have seen you taste bitterness between the two bandits for the sake of my redemption.

11.11 I have ignored the torments of thirst because I have seen my Lord drink vinegar from the sponge for my sins.

11.12 Food was of no significance for me, I disdained wine, for my eyes were upon the banquet of your kingdom, O heavenly bridegroom!

In this manner monks vanquished the passions of the flesh so as to be able to bear the hardships of life, the bitterness of asceticism and the severity of the rules. They kept vigil by night fasting and praying, they performed heavy manual labor in their quest for the pure life. The divine light was cast upon them from on high; some among them who attained perfection in their asceticism even achieved the stage of union with His glory.

Saint Anthony ( 356) -- the Father of Monks -- summed up his philosophy of asceticism in this phrase: "The soul is whole when the sensual pleasures of the flesh are abated." And this is what the Apostle Paul meant when he wrote: "...for when I am weak, then I am strong" (2 Corinthians 12:10).

Saint Athanasius ( 373) wrote of Saint Anthony: "He kept watch long into the night, so that often he spent the whole night in prayer without sleeping. This happened not on only one occasion but frequently, so that the other monks wondered about it. He wore a robe of hair and in his entire ascetic life bathed not once in water. During the day he ate only once, but often only every second or fourth day. He ate only bread with salt and drank water. He was satisfied with a hard mat to sleep on, but usually slept on the bare ground."

12. The Institution of Cenobiticism and its Organization Monastic life was known in Christianity from the 2nd century AD, as mentioned by Bar Hebraeus. In the 3rd century AD many ascetics, worshippers, and hermits appeared in many places subject to the See of Antioch. Saint Anthony (251-356) is regarded as the founder of monastic life. He was called the "father of monastic life" and "star of the desert." And, Saint Paul of Thebes was considered the first anchorite. Before he died, Anthony was inspired by God to visit him and he told him the story of his life.

Saint Paul of Thebes also told him that the hour of his death was nigh, and that God had sent him to bury him. Saint Paul of Thebes lived to the age of 113 years, 90 of which he spent in the eastern desert of Egypt, which he had chosen to be his abode. His daily meal consisted of half a loaf of bread which was brought to him, like to the great prophet Elijah, by a raven.

With the flowering of monastic life and the spread of monasteries in Egypt, Saint Pachomius wrote the rules for cenobitic life, regulating all the spiritual, bodily, and social needs of the monks.

13. The Syrian Monasteries >From the beginning of the 4th century, many famous monasteries were founded throughout the lands under the jurisdiction of the See of Antioch, that is to say in Syria, Mesopotamia, on the southern coast of Palestine, in the Syrian desert, at Mount Edessa, at Mount Izla, which surveys Nisibis and Tur-Abdin, and in Qardu and Al-Faf close to Mosul. They became centers of learning and of the virtuous life; thousands of monks and nuns withdrew into them from the worldly life in their quest for the Kingdom of God. The fragrance of their virtue wafted gloriously from their monasteries, caves hermitages and cells.

Sozomen, the Egyptian chronicler (432 AD), reports of 30 ascetics inhabiting the steppes of northern and central Syria, whom he maintains had surpassed the Egyptians ascetics in practices. The figure given by Sozomen represents only the chosen few who attained fame through their ascetic life. There were thousands of other monks and nuns living in the monasteries of these regions.

14. Monastic Ordination is not Priestly Ordination On this subject Bar Hebraeus writes: "Monastic ordination does not bestow the rank of priest, since the monk ranks below a deacon." He continues: "The monk is not permitted to approach the altar nor to touch the sacraments. The monk Dimathilius was strongly rebuked by Dionysios the Great because he had dared to do so."

Although monastic life arose outside the church it is a force that supports the church. For monks and nuns live not for the redemption of their own souls alone, which is their mission, but the pastoral and spiritual well-being of the population is also their concern. They have prayed day and night for the church and the world, so that the light of faith has been shed upon all humanity.

They have borne the light of the Gospel to many regions of the Earth. As the bearers of knowledge they have led humanity from the darkness of ignorance to the light of knowledge, thereby doing them a great service.

15. Monastic Life in the Service of the Church In hard times the anchorites abandoned their cells and monasteries and went into the cities to aid the faithful and to confirm them in their religion, to help them bear oppression with patience and in steadfast faith. When heresy arose, they departed to preach to the faithful and to preserve them from the mistaken beliefs of the heretics and to give them a firm hold in the orthodox faith that was entrusted to them by the holy apostles and the church.

Saint Anthony -- the father of monks and the star of the desert -- acted thus and determined not to abandon his connections with the church. His cooperation with the church was a good example for monks to emulate. During the wave of oppression that was instigated by Maximinus (305-318), he left his cell and went to Alexandria with the intention of suffering a martyr's death for the sake of Christ. There he visited the persecuted faithful prisoners, comforting them and encouraging them to remain firm in their faith unto death. When the followers of Arius killed the church fathers and believers in a great wave of persecution, Saint Anthony visited Alexandria a second time in 355 to defend the true faith, to comfort the persecuted faithful, to visit the prisoners and to exhort them to remain firm in their faith. This brought him much suffering.

Saint Ephrem the Syrian for his part founded a church choir composed of young girls from Edessa, which sang works that he had both written and put to music, and which served to strengthen Christian doctrine and refute heresy. The beginnings of orderly liturgical life in the Syrian Church is regarded as being his work.

It should also be mentioned that when famine broke out in Edessa in the winter of 372/373, when many of the inhabitants died of hunger, Saint Ephrem visited wealthy citizens of the city, collected alms from them and distributed them among the poor. Furthermore, he established houses in which he set up 1300 beds. They served as hostels for the old and infirm under his personal care. When the plague broke out, Saint Ephrem undertook the care and comfort of the patients himself until he, too, fell victim to the plague, dying on the 9th of June 373.

16. The Worthy Status of Monastic Life in the Church Although monastic life arose outside the church, it became a significant force together with the church and within the church. It is more than prayer, fasting, the practice of asceticism and keeping vigil. It is more than knowledge and learning. It is an important element of the church that combines the spirit of asceticism with mysticism. In the eyes of society, the monk is thus the bearer of sublime tidings -- the teachings of the Gospel -- which he lives in truth, practices in perfection and offers as an example to humanity.

For this reason the faithful have had confidence in the monks. And monastic life has accordingly occupied a privileged

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